To judge by the headlines being passed around on social media during her campaign, Hillary Clinton was often in serious trouble.

“Experts” believed the Democratic presidential candidate had suffered brain damage. Or maybe she was trying to hide alcohol and drug addiction. She was also facing imminent indictment, now that the Federal Bureau of Investigation had finally found evidence of criminality in her use of a private email server — though the New York Police Department, after uncovering shocking evidence of her links to money laundering and sex crimes involving children, might pounce first.

In the heat of the most bitter US presidential election in memory, the internet was having a field day. A barrage of fake news — much of it aimed at undermining Mrs Clinton or boosting her opponent — was just part of the diet. It included conspiracy theories, misdirection, prejudice, harassment and hate speech, specially created to circulate on the digital networks that are now central to mass communication and media consumption.